When was sunflower domesticated

I will then review and discuss the information about the origin of domestication of this crop before ending with suggested lines of future research.

Helianthus annuus L. It grows erect, is unbranched, and has fibrous roots Weiss, The domesticated sunflower has a shallow but substantial root system. The cultivated sunflower has a single flower head that averages between 0. Each flower head can have 1, to 4, individual florets that are arranged in spiral whorls originating at the center of the inflorescence and grow progressively from the outer to the center of the disk Weiss, Weiss, The flowers are protandrous, which means the anthers mature before the stigma is receptive Weiss, Insects pollinate the sunflower, with the honeybee as its major pollinator.

These seeds vary in size and weight, but they generally appear compressed, flat, and oblong, with a truncated top and pointed base Weiss, Seeds are ready to harvest when the back of the flower heads turn a yellow or brown color. They are usually threshed directly or thrown into a harvester. Threshed sunflower heads are burnt or plowed in after harvest, but they are also sometimes ground up and fed to animals Weiss, There are no special requirements when it comes to cultivating sunflowers, for which cultivation practices used for maize or wheat are adequate.

Deep or chisel plowing is necessary to break up impacted soil layers because it allows for unrestricted root development Weiss, The sunflower blooms during the summer www.

The sunflower seed is a good source of protein, fat, and carbohydrates. Stems and husks are rich in potash. The flowers themselves contain Sunflower oil is used for cooking, margarine, salad dressings, lubrication, soaps, and illumination.

It is also used in paints and varnishes. Sunflower is used to feed livestock, but kernels are also eaten by humans raw, roasted, salted, or as flour. The flowers yield a yellow dye. The plants can be used for fodder, silage, and green manure hort. Though its center of domestication is still being debated, there is no question that the sunflower is widely dispersed. The sunflower is a highly adaptable crop. The majority of older literature favors North America as the center of domestication for H.

In fact, various examples of linguistic, archaeological, and historical evidence support the hypothesis that the area of origin and domestication for the sunflower may be found particularly in Mexico and not central and eastern United States. Historical and linguistic records suggest that the sunflower has been known in Mexico from as early as Researchers P. Mangelsdorf and R. Reeves argued that the sunflower was not known in Mexico in earlier times.

Heiser Jr. In response to this hypothesis, Heiser Jr. They further ventured the possibility that if an indigenous culture had a unique name for a plant with no phonetic similarity to the Spanish terms and had traditions associated with the plant, then a long history of use of the plant was implied Lentz et al.

Lentz and his associates discovered something interesting about the use of the sunflower among the Nahua indigenous Mexican group, known descendants of the Aztecs.

The Nahua informants revealed that the sunflower was used as an ornament in churches or as a funeral offering in the cemetery. According to Lentz et al. After exploring the connection between the Nahua name and the early Spanish observation of the presence of the sunflower in central Mexico and its cultural and spiritual influence on the people, Lentz et al. Lentz et al. They also referenced observations made by anthropologist James Dow, who noticed that Otomi crosses were decorated with sunflowers, making them look more like the pre-Columbian cross rather than the traditional Christian cross Dow, c.

Lentz et al, After examining linguistic evidence from languages of Greek, Spanish, French, North American native Indian, and indigenous Mexican descent, I conclude that the origin of domestication for the sunflower is most likely somewhere in Mexico.

The differences in sunflower terminology among indigenous Mexican groups in comparison to Spanish terminology illustrate that the Spanish had minimal influence in the Mexican names for the sunflower.

The evidence also supports the hypothesis that the sunflower existed in Mexico prior to the arrival of the Spanish. Documented observations and history of use strengthens the argument that the domesticated sunflower originated in Mexico. Also, Lentz et al. Linguistic evidence therefore strongly supports Lentz et al. Though linguistics provide a reasonable argument for the original site of domestication for the sunflower, specific archaeological discoveries provide physical proof that Mexico is the most likely center of origin.

It had been popularly believed that the sunflower was native to North America www. The earliest remains of domesticated sunflowers were originally thought to be from Arizona and dated from cal B. Fritz, c. Sauer, In other words, measurements of carbonized sunflower achenes should be multiplied by 1. Alternatively, Heiser suggested that a better measure might be the heads "disks" of sunflowers. Domesticated sunflower disks are significantly larger than wild ones, but, unfortunately, only about two dozen partial or complete heads have been identified archaeologically.

The main site of domestication for sunflower appears to have been located in the eastern North American woodlands, from several dry caves and rock shelters of the central and eastern United States. The firmest evidence is from a large assemblage from the Marble Bluff site in the Arkansas Ozarks, securely dated to cal BP.

In sites more recent than cal BP, domesticate sunflowers are frequent occurrences. However, recent genetic research has shown that all modern domestic sunflowers developed from the wild eastern North American species. Some scholars have argued that the San Andres specimens may not be sunflower but if they are, they represent a second, later domestication event that failed.

Crites, Gary D. P temporal context: New evidence from middle Tennessee. American Antiquity 58 1 Damiano, Fabrizio, Luigi R. Gene 1 Heiser Jr. The origin and development of the cultivated sunflower. The American Biology Teacher 17 5 Lentz, David L. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 17 Prehistoric sunflower Helianthus Annuus L. Economic Botany 55 3 Piperno, Dolores R. Science Pope, Kevin O. Smith BD.

The domestication of Helianthus annuus L. Science News. Story Source: Materials provided by Indiana University. Journal Reference : Benjamin K. Blackman, Moira Scascitelli, Nolan C. Kane, Harry H. Luton, David A. Rasmussen, Robert A. Bye, David L. Lentz, and Loren H. Sunflower domestication alleles support single domestication center in eastern North America. ScienceDaily, 16 August Indiana University. Biologists confirm sunflower domesticated in eastern North America.